TOEFL® Vocabulary Flashcard

To pollute is to make (land, water, air, etc.) dirty and not safe or suitable to use.  Pollution is the process of polluting water, air, or land, especially with poisonous chemicals.

The following sentences contain the verb pollute.

• Car emissions pollute the air.
• Hazardous waste from landfills polluted the soils in this forest.
• Our beach was polluted by an oil spill.

As you can see the verb pollute is a transitive verb, meaning it takes an object. We can paraphrase the above three sentences using the noun pollution. We can use the phrase ‘cause pollution ’. Let’s see how we do that.

• Emissions from cars cause air pollution. .
• Hazardous waste from landfills caused the pollution of soils.
• The pollution of our beach was caused by an oil spill.

Definition: become smaller, fewer, or less; decrease:

Example senences:

• Both national and community studies have shown that physical activity decreases after early adulthood and continues to decline after age 50.
• Housing prices in general continued to decline in April, with a drop of 7.1 per cent.

Definition: A substance that pollutes something, especially water or the atmosphere

Example senences:

• The finding could help determine the background levels of various water pollutants

Definition: The natural detachment of parts of a plant, typically dead leaves and ripe fruit.

Example sentences:

• The presence and balance of plant hormones have been shown to affect abscission of leaves, flowers, and immature and mature fruit.
• Ethylene is involved in many biological processes, like fruit ripening, flower and leaf abscission, senescence, many stress acclimations, and growth.

Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning that it has elevated levels of hydrogen ions. It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals, and infrastructure.

Definition: Transported by air:

Example sentences:

• Concerning air quality, we continue to maintain a national network to gauge airborne pollution.

Biodiversity refers to the variety of living organisms within a given area.

A biome is a community of plants and animals that have common characteristics for the environment they exist in. They can be found over a range of continents.

Definition: (in singular) The uppermost branches of the trees in a forest, forming a more or less continuous layer of foliage

Example sentences:

• The American chestnut did not really disappear from the eastern forests-it ceased to be a part of the forest canopy and is now a part of the shrub understory.

Your carbon footprint is the sum of all emissions of greenhouse gases like CO2 (carbon dioxide), which were induced by your activities in a given time frame. Usually a carbon footprint is calculated for the time period of a year.

Definition: A person who advocates or acts for the protection and preservation of the environment and wildlife:

Example sentences:

• The plan is signed by eminent ecologists and conservationists from around the world.

Definition: (NOUN) contaminate

Example sentences:

• Groundwater pollution generally results from contaminants leaching through soils to underlying aquifers.

The verb "contaminate" has the same meaning of the verb "pollute". However, ‘contaminate’ can also be used in areas where ‘pollute’ does not work. That’s mostly the case when we talk about microbiology and organisms in general, as in this example:

• Be careful not to allow bacteria to contaminate the wound.
• Don't touch the microchip or the oil on your hands will contaminate it.

Additionally, contaminate is more frequently used for pollution related to nuclear energy. For instance:

• Nuclear weapons plants across the country are heavily contaminated with toxic wastes.

Definition: (With reference to a dead body or other organic matter) make or become rotten; decay or cause to decay:

Example sentences:

• It takes several weeks or longer, depending upon the size, for the body to completely decompose.

Definition: Clear (an area) of forests or trees.

Example sentences:

• Thirteen Buddhist pagodas, 17 schools, and several villages are now planting those trees in an attempt to restore a severely deforested area.

Deforestation is the permanent destruction of forests in order to make the land available for other uses. Examples of deforestation include conversion of forestland to farms, ranches, or urban use.

To deplete means to use up or consume a limited resource. For example:

• Increased irrigation depleted water resources.

We can paraphrase this sentence using the noun ‘depletion’.

• Increased irrigation led to the depletion of water resources.

Here are more example sentences using “deplete”:

• Overfishing is rapidly depleting fish populations.
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are rapidly depleting the earth's ozone layer.
• Trees are rapidly being depleted as land is being cleared for agricultural activities and urbanization.
• Loss of biodiversity diminishes the adaptability of the ecosystem and depletes genetic resources.

Can you paraphrase them using “depletion”? Now let’s see my answer.

• Overfishing is causing the rapid depletion of fish populations.
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are causing the rapid depletion of the earth's ozone layer.
• The rapid depletion of trees is occurring as land is being cleared for agricultural activities and urbanization.
• Loss of biodiversity diminishes the adaptability of the ecosystem and leads to the depletion of genetic resources.

To deplete means to use up or consume a limited resource. For example:

• Increased irrigation depleted water resources.

We can paraphrase this sentence using the noun ‘depletion’.

• Increased irrigation led to the depletion of water resources.

Here are more example sentences using “deplete”:

• Overfishing is rapidly depleting fish populations.
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are rapidly depleting the earth's ozone layer.
• Trees are rapidly being depleted as land is being cleared for agricultural activities and urbanization.
• Loss of biodiversity diminishes the adaptability of the ecosystem and depletes genetic resources.

Can you paraphrase them using “depletion”? Now let’s see my answer.

• Overfishing is causing the rapid depletion of fish populations.
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are causing the rapid depletion of the earth's ozone layer.
• The rapid depletion of trees is occurring as land is being cleared for agricultural activities and urbanization.
• Loss of biodiversity diminishes the adaptability of the ecosystem and leads to the depletion of genetic resources.

Uses as the intransitive verb, “deteriorate” means getting worse. The environment can deteriorate as well, due to human activity. For example

• The global environment is deteriorating at an unprecedented rate.

The health and weather can deteriorate as well. For example:

• My health began to deteriorate quite seriously.
• The weather gradually deteriorated as the day went on.

Uses as the transitive verb, “deteriorate” mean making something worse. For example

• Runoffs of agricultural wastes, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides into marine and freshwater environments have deteriorated the quality of wildlife habitats.

If something is in a state of deterioration, it’s getting worse. Here are example sentences:

• Major pollutants such as oxides of nitrogen and sulfur, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide and other chemical wastes are causing the deterioration of air quality.
• Landfills discharge various kinds of chemicals on the land adjacent to forest and various natural habitats, resulting in the deterioration of soil.
• Mental and physical deterioration both occur naturally with age.

The noun 'deterioration' is the noun of "deteriorate". In sentences containing the word "deteriorate", We can paraphrase using the noun “deterioration”. For example:

The sentence

• The global environment is deteriorating at an unprecedented rate.

Can be paraphrased to

• Deterioration of the global environment is happening faster than ever before.

The sentence

• Runoffs of agricultural wastes, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides into marine and freshwater environments have deteriorated the quality of wildlife habitats.

Can be paraphrased to

• Runoffs of agricultural wastes, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides into marine and freshwater environments have resulted in the deterioration of the quality of wildlife habitats.

Definition: Make or become less

Example senences:

• The propensity for people enriched by capital gains to borrow and spend is gradually diminishing.

Ecological describe something relating to ecology or the environment. Examples:

• The destruction of the rain forests is an ecological disaster.
• The ecological effects of the factory need to be balanced against the employment it generates.
• The ecological consequences of a nuclear war are incalculable.

Ecological footprint is the amount of the earth's energy that someone or something uses. An example in a sentence:

• I'm trying to reduce my ecological footprint by cycling more and driving less.

An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment (things like air, water and mineral soil), interacting as a system.

Okay! The noun emission, can either mean the process of emitting sth or it can be used to refer to the gas or light which is emitted itself.

When used in singular the noun refers to the process, as in the following sentence:

• Humans should try to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases.

On the other hand, the plural noun "emissions" is used when we talk about fumes and gases from cars and other sources or when we talk about radio waves and light.

• Vehicle emissions = gases emitted from vehicles
• Fossil fuel emissions = gases emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels
• Radio emissions from the sun = radio waves emitted from the sun

Okay! Taking the knowledge I just taught you, we can change the sentence “The burning of fossil fuels emits carbon dioxides into the atmosphere.” as follows:

• The burning of fossil fuels is a source of carbon dioxide emissions.
• Carbon dioxide emissions are caused by the burning of fossil fuels.

To emit means to send out light or gas from somewhere and is often used to refer to the gases and smog coming out of power plants or cars. Here is an example:

• The burning of fossil fuels emits carbon dioxides into the atmosphere.

We could paraphrase this sentence using the verbs ‘release’ or ‘give off’. Let’s look at the example.

• The burning of fossil fuels releases/gives off carbon dioxides into the atmosphere.

Okay! The noun emission, can either mean the process of emitting sth or it can be used to refer to the gas or light which is emitted itself.

When used in singular the noun refers to the process, as in the following sentence:

• Humans should try to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases.

On the other hand, the plural noun "emissions" is used when we talk about fumes and gases from cars and other sources or when we talk about radio waves and light.

• Vehicle emissions = gases emitted from vehicles
• Fossil fuel emissions = gases emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels
• Radio emissions from the sun = radio waves emitted from the sun

Okay! Taking the knowledge I just taught you, we can change the sentence “The burning of fossil fuels emits carbon dioxides into the atmosphere.” as follows:

• The burning of fossil fuels is a source of carbon dioxide emissions.
• Carbon dioxide emissions are caused by the burning of fossil fuels.

To “encroach on/onto” means to take control or possession of something in a gradual way. this usually has a negative meaning, so humans encroach onto the environment means that humans gradually occupy the environment and cause damage to it

Let’s look at two example sentences

• Humans are encroaching onto the environment at an unprecedented rate so that many untamed landscapes are being given over to farming, industry, housing, tourism and other human developments.
• Humans encroach on natural resources, leading to mass extinctions of species.

Let’s see how we can paraphrase these two sentences using the noun “encroachment”. 

• The encroachment of humans on the environment is happening at an unprecedented rate, so that many untamed landscapes are being given over to farming, industry, housing, tourism and other human developments.
• Mass extinctions of species are caused by the encroachment of humans on natural habitats.

Sometimes you will see the words “encroach” and “encroachment” being used to talk about how technology is gradually affecting people’s social behavior. For example

• Some people believe that Facebook is encroaching on people’s privacy.
• Some people think text messaging is an encroachment on in-person social interactions.

To “encroach on/onto” means to take control or possession of something in a gradual way. this usually has a negative meaning, so humans encroach onto the environment means that humans gradually occupy the environment and cause damage to it

Let’s look at two example sentences

• Humans are encroaching onto the environment at an unprecedented rate so that many untamed landscapes are being given over to farming, industry, housing, tourism and other human developments.
• Humans encroach on natural resources, leading to mass extinctions of species.

Let’s see how we can paraphrase these two sentences using the noun “encroachment”. 

• The encroachment of humans on the environment is happening at an unprecedented rate, so that many untamed landscapes are being given over to farming, industry, housing, tourism and other human developments.
• Mass extinctions of species are caused by the encroachment of humans on natural habitats.

Sometimes you will see the words “encroach” and “encroachment” being used to talk about how technology is gradually affecting people’s social behavior. For example

• Some people believe that Facebook is encroaching on people’s privacy.
• Some people think text messaging is an encroachment on in-person social interactions.

An animal that is endangered is close to extinction — meaning there aren't very many of that type of animal left in the world. Here are example sentences:

• Animals usually become endangered due to overhunting or the destruction of their habitat.
• The wild water buffalo is considered an endangered species.
• The wild water buffalo is endangered because their habitats fall to cultivation and commercialization by humans.

If a disease or illness is endemic in a place, it is frequently found among the people who live there. For example:

• Polio was then endemic among children my age.

If you say that a condition or problem is endemic, you mean that it is very common and strong, and cannot be dealt with easily. For example:

• Street crime is virtually endemic in large cities.

If you say a species is endemic to a region, you mean it is native to a certain region. The phrase "be endemic to" is often used. For example:

• The species was endemic to the island, which brought tourists from all over the world.
• Kangaroos are endemic to Australia.
• Some island species are found nowhere else apart from these areas – we call them endemic species. 

Definition: Relating to the natural world and the impact of human activity on its condition:

Example sentences:

• Acid rain may have caused major environmental damage.

Definition: Not harmful to the environment

Example sentences:

• Europe's airplane engine manufacturers are now pooling their resources to make flying more environmentally friendly.

The adjective exploitable describe something that can be manipulated to one's advantage. Here is an example sentence:

• It is estimated that there won’t be any exploitable fossil fuels reserves by 2060.

When a species went/became extinct, it means it no longer exists. Here are some usages:

• Dinosaurs are extinct animals.
• Dinosaurs went extinct about 65 million years ago.
• Polar bears may become extinct due to global warming.
• Western Black Rhinoceros went extinct in 2011 = The Western black rhino was declared extinct in 2011

In geology, extinct means a volcano is no longer active. For example

• an extinct volcano

Okay! The noun ‘extinction’ obvious means the state of becoming extinct. Let’s try paraphrase this sentence using ‘extinction’.

• Polar bears may become extinct due to global warming.

Here is the paraphrased version

• Global warming might lead to the extinction of polar bears.

Let try another one

• Many animals went extinct as human encroached on natural habitats.

Here is my paraphrased version

• Human encroachments on natural habitats led to mass extinctions of species.

Here! Notice that extinction is plural because we are talking about many species becoming extinct.

Okay! Let’s look at some collocations often used with ‘extinct’ and ‘extinction’. To name a few:

• in the danger of becoming extinct = in the danger of extinction
• on the brink of becoming extinct = on the brink of extinction
• Be headed for extinction = race toward extinction
• Put __ at risk of extinction

Here are examples

• Several bird species are on the brink of extinction.
• Giraffes are in the danger of extinction.
• The tiger is headed for extinction because of development and hunting.
• The introduction of foxes put many native species at risk of extinction.

The noun ‘extinction’ obvious means the state of becoming extinct. 

• Global warming might lead to the extinction of polar bears.

• Human encroachments on natural habitats led to mass extinctions of species.

• Several bird species are on the brink of extinction.
• Giraffes are in the danger of extinction.
• The tiger is headed for extinction because of development and hunting.
• The introduction of foxes put many native species at risk of extinction.

When you go on a nature walk in a school setting, your teacher might tell you to observe the flora and fauna in the woods. Flora is plant life; fauna refers to animals.

Definition: A place where fish are reared for commercial purposes.

Example sentences:

• Although some stream fed commercial fisheries do contain natural fish, the fast majority are artificially stocked.

When you go on a nature walk in a school setting, your teacher might tell you to observe the flora and fauna in the woods. Flora is plant life; fauna refers to animals.

Definition: The impact on the environment of human activity in terms of pollution, damage to ecosystems, and the depletion of natural resources

Example sentences:

• Music streaming can be bad for your carbon footprint - the computer has to be on to play audio files from its hard drive.

Definition: Very cold in temperature:

Example sentences:

• The sea here is as cold as Cornwall in winter and you have to wear a full wetsuit, boots, gloves and a hood to insulate you from the frigid waters and equally cold winds

A habitat is a place where a plant or animal naturally lives. The terms ‘habitat loss (= loss of habitat)’, ‘natural habitats’, ‘wildlife habitats’ are often used. Habitation means the act of living in a place. For example, when an area has no human habitation, it means that no people live there.

Example sentences:

• Mining and oil exploration render land unusable for habitation and causes other forms of environmental degradation by releasing toxic materials into the environment. (habitation)
• Most endangered species are threatened by multiple factors, but habitat loss is generally viewed as the largest single cause of biodiversity loss worldwide. (habitat loss)
• Habitat loss poses great threats to species.​
• Runoffs of agricultural wastes, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides into marine and freshwater environments have deteriorated the quality of wildlife habitats.

A habitat is a place where a plant or animal naturally lives. The terms ‘habitat loss (= loss of habitat)’, ‘natural habitats’, ‘wildlife habitats’ are often used. Habitation means the act of living in a place. For example, when an area has no human habitation, it means that no people live there.

Example sentences:

• Mining and oil exploration render land unusable for habitation and causes other forms of environmental degradation by releasing toxic materials into the environment. (habitation)
• Most endangered species are threatened by multiple factors, but habitat loss is generally viewed as the largest single cause of biodiversity loss worldwide. (habitat loss)
• Habitat loss poses great threats to species.​
• Runoffs of agricultural wastes, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides into marine and freshwater environments have deteriorated the quality of wildlife habitats.

An inhospitable area is not suitable for humans to live in. An example in a sentence:

• Tibetans still form a majority of people living in the inhospitable countryside.​

You use invasive to describe something undesirable which spreads very quickly and which is very difficult to stop from spreading like invasive species, invasive cancer, invasive pests.

Invasive species are plants or animals that are not native to an environment and steadily spread, sometimes taking over the native landscape.

Here are example sentences:

• Raccoons are an invasive species in Scotland.
• They found invasive cancer during a routine examination.
• An invasive pest can decimate unprotected crops.

Invasive can also mean intrusive. Something intrusive is invading your privacy. If someone asks you a million questions, especially personal questions, that's intrusive behavior. When photographers hound celebrities, they're being intrusive.

Let's look at an example using invasive:

•  I feel that keeping direct eye contact is less invasive than a handshake or a hug.

Definition: Deplete the stock of fish in (a body of water) by excessive fishing

Example sentences:

• Seventy percent of the world's most valuable fisheries, and 11 of 15 major fishing grounds, are either overfished or fished to the limit according to the United Nations.

Definition: All the inhabitants of a particular town, area, or country. All the people or animals of a particular type or group who live in one country, area, or place

Example senences:

• Many of the world's cities have populations of more than five million. 
• In 1992 the population of Cairo was approximately 6,500,000.  
• The country is facing a population explosion.
• The dolphin population has been decimated by tuna fishing. 
• In the past eight years, the elephant population in Africa has been halved. 

Definition: going out of sight

Example sentences:

• The Indian elephant is a vanishing species that needs a protected habitat to survive.
• While a photograph is a static record of a specific moment, the pigment is a symbol of that specific moment vanishing.